A recent study published in Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa explores new historical evidence of one of pre-colonial Dongola's earliest rulers. Previously considered semi-legendary, the discovery of a document in which orders were issued in the name of King Qashqash provides evidence of his existence and details his social interactions, rulership, and the Arabization of Dongola in the Funj period.
History of Old Dongola's Dark Ages
Old Dongola was once the capital of Makuria, a Christian Kingdom located in modern-day Northern Sudan. However, by the mid-14th century, it entered what is known as "the Dark Ages" in Sudanese history, no longer serving as the capital of Makuria. Very little is known about the succeeding three centuries and the gradual period of Arabization and Islamization of ancient Nubia.
As lead author Tomasz Barański explains, however, this transformation was far from sudden. "Nubia was not a marginal or isolated region of the Nile Valley, but a pivotal corridor connecting the Mediterranean world to sub-Saharan Africa. Rather than a civilizational dead end, Nubia functioned for millennia as a dynamic zone of movement for people, goods, and ideas. Through Nubia passed commodities such as gold, ivory, and enslaved people, but it also enabled the exchange of less tangible elements: technologies, religious beliefs, and political models.
"Moreover, Nubian communities were not passive recipients of outside influence; they actively shaped and adapted the flows passing through this corridor. This long history of exchange helps us understand later cultural transformations in the region, including Arabization and Islamization. These were not sudden ruptures, but part of a much older pattern of interaction, negotiation, and adaptation that has characterized Sudan throughout history."
However, as Dongola entered the "Dark Ages," it gradually shrank in size until it encompassed only the central citadel and its immediate surroundings. A few mentions of the city and its rulers are made, including fragmentary references to a man named Qashqash, who, according to the Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt, a 19th-century bibliographical dictionary compiled from oral stories about Sudanese holy men, is said to be the great-grandfather Sheikh Ḥilālī, the son of Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā Suwār al-Dhahab ("Golden Bracelet"), one of the most important holy figures in Sudan, even today.
From King Qashqash to Khidr
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Feb 28, 2026
Other Sciences Archaeology
Arabic document from 17th-century rubbish heap confirms existence of semi-legendary Nubian king
by Sandee Oster, Phys.org
edited by Gaby Clark, reviewed by Robert Egan
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Arabic Document from 17th-Century Rubbish Heap Confirms Existence of Semi-Legendary Nubian King
King's Order (Side B). Credit: M. Rekłajtis/PCMA in Barański et al. 2026
A recent study published in Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa explores new historical evidence of one of pre-colonial Dongola's earliest rulers. Previously considered semi-legendary, the discovery of a document in which orders were issued in the name of King Qashqash provides evidence of his existence and details his social interactions, rulership, and the Arabization of Dongola in the Funj period.
History of Old Dongola's Dark Ages
Old Dongola was once the capital of Makuria, a Christian Kingdom located in modern-day Northern Sudan. However, by the mid-14th century, it entered what is known as "the Dark Ages" in Sudanese history, no longer serving as the capital of Makuria. Very little is known about the succeeding three centuries and the gradual period of Arabization and Islamization of ancient Nubia.
As lead author Tomasz Barański explains, however, this transformation was far from sudden. "Nubia was not a marginal or isolated region of the Nile Valley, but a pivotal corridor connecting the Mediterranean world to sub-Saharan Africa. Rather than a civilizational dead end, Nubia functioned for millennia as a dynamic zone of movement for people, goods, and ideas. Through Nubia passed commodities such as gold, ivory, and enslaved people, but it also enabled the exchange of less tangible elements: technologies, religious beliefs, and political models.
"Moreover, Nubian communities were not passive recipients of outside influence; they actively shaped and adapted the flows passing through this corridor. This long history of exchange helps us understand later cultural transformations in the region, including Arabization and Islamization. These were not sudden ruptures, but part of a much older pattern of interaction, negotiation, and adaptation that has characterized Sudan throughout history."
Arabic Document from 17th-Century Rubbish Heap Confirms Existence of Semi-Legendary Nubian King
King's order (Side A) Credit: M. Rekłajtis/PCMA in Barański et al. 2026
However, as Dongola entered the "Dark Ages," it gradually shrank in size until it encompassed only the central citadel and its immediate surroundings. A few mentions of the city and its rulers are made, including fragmentary references to a man named Qashqash, who, according to the Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt, a 19th-century bibliographical dictionary compiled from oral stories about Sudanese holy men, is said to be the great-grandfather Sheikh Ḥilālī, the son of Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā Suwār al-Dhahab ("Golden Bracelet"), one of the most important holy figures in Sudan, even today.
From King Qashqash to Khidr
In 2018, the "Urban Metamorphosis of the community of a Medieval African capital city" (UMMA) project launched a new chapter in the investigation of Dongola's past, including the investigation of the citadel and its surroundings.
During this time, researchers excavated Building A.1, which, according to local oral tradition, was the residence of Dongola's kings. Beyond finding various materials linked to elite contexts, including cotton, linen, silk, leather shoes, ivory, or rhino-horn dagger handle, and a gold ring, over 23 new Arabic texts were recovered, including an order by King Qashqash recovered from a rubbish heap.
The order reads, "From King Qashqash to Khiḍr son of ŠHDT/ŠHB(T?). As soon as Muḥammad al-ʿArab comes to you, take from him three ʾRDWYĀT and give him a ewe and her offspring and collect, from ʿAbd al-Jābīr, the ewe and her offspring; and give them to their master without delay. Do not hesitate! This is my letter/reply to you. His scribe Ḥamad wrote it. Greetings.
"And you, Khiḍr, give to ʿAbd al-Jābīr three cotton cloths and a head (or three cotton headwear) and collect the ewe and her offspring for their master."
Insights into Old Dongola
The document confirms the existence of the semi-legendary Qashqash and provides evidence of the earliest known post-medieval ruler of Dongola. Analysis of the text reveals linguistic insights, including that the scribe was not fully literate in Classic Arabic and made use of possessive pronouns without distinguishing number or gender, and compressed lettering resembling colloquial speech rather than classic Arabic. The writing reveals insights into how Arabic was becoming the primary written language of the royal court, though it was likely not yet adopted as the city's native language.
